The ancient Greeks invented the adversary system which is "guilty until proven innocent" and it was an alternative to physical fighting. If two citizens found themselves fighting over something they would agree to have a judge serve as a third party to resolve the dispute. This system was developed because democracy was forming. Democracy replaced tyranny in sixth century Athens because tyranny was a form of government in which a one ruler had absolute power over everything. It was an extremely oppressive form of government when there was a terrible ruler but when there was a smart, intelligent one, it was beneficial. A democracy was an assembly of citizens that allowed majority vote to make change happen. And in Athens, they used a public forum which was a place where individuals got together to discuss different matters.
In the fifth century B.C. the sophists were the first teachers of communication. They began to consistently study communication and how it was so important to our everyday lives. The sophists studied and taught persuasion, rhetoric and communication. They developed ways for others speak their minds in public. They designed a way to teach the Greek ideal of arete: "the knowledge and attitude of effective participation in domestic, social and political life". The famous sophists were Corax, Protagoras, Gorgias Hippias and Isocrates. The sophists were revolutionary in what they tried to do. They developed the idea that every citizen can and should learn to speak well and become influential. Although they had a good reputation, they also had a bad one. People thought that if you could teach someone to communicate effectively, that you could also teach someone to communicate deceitfully. And con artists and demagogues are very effective persuaders, using every known device to trick and deceit people.
Socrates was Plato's teacher and taught the idea of not accepting everything that you are told. He believed in Truth (with a capital T) to be absolute and permanent, set for all time by the gods. He taught that people should always question what they are told and to never accept anything. Socrates developed a method called the Socratic Method which draws out the truths from all his students.
Plato was Socrates' most devout follower. In his work, The Republic, he claimed that the best government would be one in which the best philosopher would rule as a king. He objected that the sophists teachings of rhetoric were more style favored over substance and that they regarded technique over truth. He thought that the truth resided within the individual and that it was to be discovered. He also believed that there was a devotion to truth and to academic logic. Plato also distrusted rhetoric and thought it would promote falsehoods.
Aristotle followed both Plato and Socrates' teachings. But he different slightly in ways. He taught to acknowledge nature and that Truth is in the environment and it is to be taken in through the senses. He was called the first true empiricist because he practiced systematic observation. He invented formal logic which uses syllogisms so we can make certain claims about observations as long as they are grounded in certain principles and it gets us closer to the truth. According to Aristotle, rhetoric can be used positively or negatively and an individuals ethics would determine if it was a positive or negative contribution to the world. Aristotle had 3 principles in rhetoric:
1. Communication has a purpose
2. There are three types of oratory: Forensic, Deliberative, and Epideictic.
3. Persuasion is accomplished through three different kinds of appeals: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos.
Aristotle also thought that persuasion is a logical and psychological process and that there are five steps needed in order to be an effective communicator.
1. Invention: generate a set of ideas
2. Disposition: organizing your ideas
3. Style: being able to use appropriate language
4. Memory: remembering facts and ideas in the construction of your argument
5. Deliberate: being able to effectively deliver your message
Chapter 2
John Locke believed that communication is an instrument that ties society together and that is it a tool we study in order to best use it in different contexts. He said that humans are "sociable" and language is "the great instrument, the Tye of Society" (Locke, 1690/1979). In his opinion, communication provides the device for humans to co-exist and garner the benefits of society without compromising their individual sovereignty.
Alexander the Great had a grand library to house all the great writings and books. They didn't necessarily use the knowledge they wanted to have it so no one else would. Alexander had people study the text, but not necessarily for the rhetoric. A Muslim logician, Averroes did study the text for the rhetoric and for the audience. He called the lowest class of audience the "rhetorical class" and he suggested that they should be taught by preachers and not allowed to read for themselves.
The Romans realized that they could use rhetoric to make laws. They were known for organization and discipline. Cicero was the greatest of all Roman orators and he wrote seven books on the subject of rhetoric. He suggested that oratory has three practical objectives: to instruct, to please, and to win over. Another great Roman scholar was Quintilian. His students were required to memorize and recite Cicero's speeches.
Augustine was a philosopher and a teacher and followed Plato, Aristotle and the other sophists. He struggled with the truth existing but he thought it was the diving truth. He borrowed from Aristotle that rhetoric is useful in order to reject the ideas of the Catholic Church. The Moors spent a lot of time and effort trying to get information. The Christian Crusaders then then captured the library of Alexandria. The Moors no longer had control of that area.
Elocution developed out of England and the New World. People who taught elocution primarily focused on oral communication. It was a way to formally present ones self in any situation. Hugh Blair taught that "its not what you say, but how you say it." All the teachers of elocution were trying to teach the lower class to present them selves to the higher class. People were able to make a solid argument, use good reasons and then be able to deliver it in such a way that they look polished and prepared.
The history of communication is widespread and covers many centuries but it is all very important to how we are able to communicate today. From the ancient Greek and Roman sophists all the way to England and the New World in the 19th Century, communication has changed and developed into what it is today.
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